The Omani Military Establishment and Military Spending (1970-1991)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17605/cajssh.v4i12.1014Keywords:
military institution, British, military spending, Sultanate of Oman, military forcesAbstract
The military institution has an effective role in formulating state policy and influencing regional and even global policy, at a time when the countries of the world moved towards arming and developing weapons, coinciding with the major powers’ pursuit of their interests using force and politics. In light of these developments, the important role of the military institution became clear, and the Sultanate of Oman faced... Great challenges were imposed on it to develop its military institution, as it is in the Strait of Hormuz, with Iran competing in its management, as well as its border disputes, in addition to the outbreak of the Iraqi-Iranian war, which imposed the development of the military institution on the entire Gulf states. The subject of the research sheds light on the Omani military institution, its capabilities, and the stages of its development, consisting of three axes: the first An overview of the history of the Sultanate, its location, and its economic resources. The second dealt with the military establishment, its establishment, the stages of its development, and the most important challenges it faced. The third axis studied military spending and arms purchases.
References
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3. FakhriHalil Al-Najjar, ibid, p. 19.)
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10. Same source, p. 263.
11. Al-Afraj: These are natural water sources that emerge from the earth's interior as a result of the storage of abundant water due to rain in rocky reservoirs and an increase in water; Abbas Fadel Al-Saadi, previous source, p. 125
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14. Same source, p. 104.
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17. Same source, p. 27.
18. Johnald Hawley, Amman and its Modern Renaissance, State House Publications (in Arabic), London 2006, p. 21.
19. Khaled Nasser Al-Wasmi, Oman between Independence and Occupation, Al-Shira Al-Arabi Foundation, Kuwait 1993, p. 109.
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24. Same source, p. 27.
25. Khalid Muhammad Al-Qasimi, previous source, p. 176.
26. Fakhri Khalil Ahmed, previous source, p. 160.
27. Saeed Abdel Fattah Ashour, Oman and Islamic Civilization, Al-Tali’ah Publishing House, Kuwait 2003, p. 72.
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29. WidadKhudair Hussein Al-Shatwi, Chapters from the Modern and Contemporary History of the Arabian Gulf, Al-Sayyab Foundation, 1st edition, London 2014, p. 265.
30. The National Archives . Policy on loan service personnel from UK to Oman and direct military assistance. Discovery .nationalarchives.gov.uk
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33. Dhafer Muhammad Al-Ajmi, Arab Gulf security, its development and problems from the perspective of regional and international relations, Center for Arab Unity Studies, Beirut 2006, p. 508.
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36. Stephen HemsleyLongrigg: Stephen HemsleyLongrigg was born on August 7, 1893, a British military ruler, director of an oil company, and a leading authority in the history of oil in the Middle East in the first half of the twentieth century. He died on September 11, 1979.
37. Abdullah Al-Nafisi, The Balance of Power in terms of Armaments in the Arabian Gulf Region, International Politics, Al-Ahram Journal of the Center for Political and Strategic Studies, Cairo, No. 37, August 1974.
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39. Dhafer Muhammad Al-Ajami, previous source, p. 509.
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42. Robert GuillénGutierre, previous source, p. 107.
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44. Dhafer Muhammad Al-Ajaimi, previous source, p. 546.
45. Timothy Creasy (General Timothy Creasy): He was born in 1923 and received his education at Cliffon College. He joined the army and became an officer. He was commissioned in the Indian Army in the 10th Baloch Regiment. He served with them in South Asia, Italy and Greece, and in 1955 he worked as an officer in the 39th Regiment. In 1956, he worked as a trainer at the Staff College, and in 1972, he was appointed Major General and loaned to the Sultanate of Oman, where he served as Commander of the Sultan’s Armed Forces;
46. LouayBakr Al-Tayyar, Arab Gulf Security, Center for Arab-European Studies, Dar Bilal. Beirut 1999, p. 89.
47. Pepper Pearls, The Twenty-First Century Will Not Be American, Translated by: MadaniQasri, Arab Foundation for Studies and Publishing, Beirut 2003, 1st edition, p. 3.
48. Jamal ZakariaQasim, Security Problems in the Arabian Gulf Since the British Withdrawal to the Second Gulf War, Lecturer Series, Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, Abu Dhabi 1997, p. 10.
49. Robert Gran Landen, Oman from the Nineteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, Arab Encyclopedia House, translated by the Foundation Center, Beirut, Lebanon 2012, p. 537.
50. Same source, p. 538.
51. RaafatGanji Al-Sheikh, American Relations in the Twentieth Century, The Arab Historian, Historical Quarterly Magazine, General Secretariat of the Union of Historians. Baghdad 1995. Issue 52.
52. Ibrahim Muhammad Yashmi, Kingdom of Hormuz, Al-Ayyam Foundation for Press, Printing and Publishing, Bahrain 1994, p. 163.
53. Same source, p. 167.
54. Saeed Sultan Al-Hashemi, Oman, Man and Authority, Center for Arab Unity Studies, Dar Al-Maaref Publishing, Amman 2001, p. 187.
55. Nayef Ali Obaid, The Cooperation Council for the Arab Gulf States from Cooperation to Integration, Center for Arab Unity Studies, Beirut 2006, p. 211..
56. Same source, p. 213.
57. Jamal Sanad Al-Suwaidi, Iran, the Gulf, and the Search for Stability, Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, Abu Dhabi 1996, p. 186.
58. Nayef Ali Obaid, previous source, p. 223.
59. Ibrahim Ahmed Ibrahim, The Arms Race in the Middle East, International Politics, Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies Journal, No. 76, 1984.
Same source.
60. Peninsula Shield Force: The Gulf Cooperation Council, at its third session in Manama in November 1982, approved the formation of a force composed of the armies of the member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council. The force aims to protect the security and stability of the Gulf Cooperation Council countries and deter any military aggression launched against the force. The problem is naming the “Peninsula Shield Forces,” which is the name that continued to be given to the force until 2005, when the name was changed to the Joint Peninsula Shield Forces during the Supreme Council of the Gulf Cooperation Council at its twenty-sixth session in Abu Dhabi in December 2005: Salah Al-Akkad, Political Currents in The Arabian Gulf, Al-Amin Publishing House, Cairo 1970, p. 171
61. Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Hamad Al-Harithi, Oman Encyclopedia of Secret Documents, Volume 6, Center for Arab Unity Studies, Beirut 1966, p. 231.
62. Fakhri Khalil Al-Najjar, History of Oman’s Civilization, Dar Safaa for Publishing and Distribution, Amman 2010, p. 211.
63. Abdullah Mishari Al-Nafisi, Omani military spending and security interactions, Journal of Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies. Issue 140, Kuwait 2002.
64. RaafatGhunaimi Al-Sheikh, Omani-American relations in the twentieth century, General Secretariat of the Union of Arab Historians, Arab Historian Magazine, No. 52, Baghdad 1995.
65. LouayBakr Al-Tayyar, Security of the Arabian Gulf, Center for Arab-European Studies, Beirut 1999, p. 49; www.1upinfo.com.
66. Adnan Hayajah, Arab Gulf Security in Light of Regional Challenges, Bahrain Center for Strategic, International and Energy Studies, Bahrain 2015, p. 182; LuayBakr Al-Tayyar, previous source, p. 321; www.1upinfo.com.
67. Adnan Hayaga, previous source, p. 184; LuayBakr Al-Tayyar, previous source, p. 321; www.1upinfo.com.
2. Khalid Yahya Al-Azzi, Historical and Civilizational Sites of the Sultanate of Oman, National House of Arab Books, Baghdad 1985, p. 24؛FakhriHalil Al-Najjar, ibid, p. 18.
3. FakhriHalil Al-Najjar, ibid, p. 19.)
4. Noufan Raja Al-Hamoud Al-Suwairiya, Oman and its Surroundings during the Period 1814-1921, Publications of Nitek Al-Aamal, Jordan 1996, p. 241.
5. Same source, p. 261)
6. Oman (2007-2008), Publications of the Ministry of Information / Muscat, Sultanate of Oman 2008, p. 36.
7. FakhriHalil Al-Najjar, ibid, p. 20.
8. Salah Al-Aqad, Political Trends in the Arabian Gulf, Dar Al-Amin Publishing, Cairo 1970, p. 212.
9. J.J. Lorimo, Guide to the Gulf Geographical Section, Vol. 6, Ali Bin Ali Printing Press, Doha, Qatar 1994, p. 252.
10. Same source, p. 263.
11. Al-Afraj: These are natural water sources that emerge from the earth's interior as a result of the storage of abundant water due to rain in rocky reservoirs and an increase in water; Abbas Fadel Al-Saadi, previous source, p. 125
12. KhaledYahya Al-Ghazi, The Arabian Gulf, Its Past and Present, Dar Al-Jahiz Press, Baghdad 1972, p. 212
13. Jean-Jacques Berbey, The Arabian Gulf, Commercial Office for Printing, Distribution and Publishing, Beirut 1950, p. 103
14. Same source, p. 104.
15. KhaledYahya Al-Ghazi, The Historical and Cultural Reality of the Sultanate of Oman, National House Library, Baghdad 1986, p. 14
16. Gibrald Landon, Oman, a Journey and Destiny, translated by Muhammad Amin Abdullah, Cairo 1970, p. 26
17. Same source, p. 27.
18. Johnald Hawley, Amman and its Modern Renaissance, State House Publications (in Arabic), London 2006, p. 21.
19. Khaled Nasser Al-Wasmi, Oman between Independence and Occupation, Al-Shira Al-Arabi Foundation, Kuwait 1993, p. 109.
20. Ibrahim Al-Sharifi, Lights on the Arabian Gulf, Al-Madina Printing and Publishing Company Press, Jeddah 1968, p. 23.
21. Nour al-Din al-Salmi, Tuhfat al-A’yan Bi Biography of the People of Oman, vol. 1, Dar al-Tali’ah, 5th edition, Kuwait 1947, p. 23.
22. Khaled Muhammad Al-Qasimi, Oman History and Civilization, Arab Culture House, Damascus 1999, p. 171.
23. Suleiman bin Khalaf Al-Kharusi, Features of Omani History, 1st edition, Oman 2006, p. 64.
24. Same source, p. 27.
25. Khalid Muhammad Al-Qasimi, previous source, p. 176.
26. Fakhri Khalil Ahmed, previous source, p. 160.
27. Saeed Abdel Fattah Ashour, Oman and Islamic Civilization, Al-Tali’ah Publishing House, Kuwait 2003, p. 72.
28. MasoudZahir, The Sultanate of Oman Forty Years (1970-2010), Dar Al-Farabi, Beirut 2010, p. 62.
29. WidadKhudair Hussein Al-Shatwi, Chapters from the Modern and Contemporary History of the Arabian Gulf, Al-Sayyab Foundation, 1st edition, London 2014, p. 265.
30. The National Archives . Policy on loan service personnel from UK to Oman and direct military assistance. Discovery .nationalarchives.gov.uk
31. The National Archives. Loan service personnel for Oman. discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk .
32. Hussein Agha and others, The Foreign Military Presence in the Middle East, 2nd edition, The Third Al-Ilm Center for Studies and Publishing, London 1984, p. 53
33. Dhafer Muhammad Al-Ajmi, Arab Gulf security, its development and problems from the perspective of regional and international relations, Center for Arab Unity Studies, Beirut 2006, p. 508.
34. Abdul Amir Muhammad Amin, Naval Powers in the Arabian Gulf, Dar Al-Ulum Al-Arabi, Beirut 2023. p. 132.
35. Abdullah Al-Nafisi, Evaluating the Conflict in Dhofar, 1965-1975, Dar Al-Tali’ah, Kuwait, p. 36.
36. Stephen HemsleyLongrigg: Stephen HemsleyLongrigg was born on August 7, 1893, a British military ruler, director of an oil company, and a leading authority in the history of oil in the Middle East in the first half of the twentieth century. He died on September 11, 1979.
37. Abdullah Al-Nafisi, The Balance of Power in terms of Armaments in the Arabian Gulf Region, International Politics, Al-Ahram Journal of the Center for Political and Strategic Studies, Cairo, No. 37, August 1974.
38. Abdul Amir Muhammad Amin, Naval Powers in the Arabian Gulf, Dar Al-Ulum Al-Arabi, Beirut 2-13, p. 167.
39. Dhafer Muhammad Al-Ajami, previous source, p. 509.
40. Robert GuillénGutierre, War and Change in World Politics, translated by: Omar Saeed Al-Ayoubi, Arab Book House, Beirut 2009, p. 90.
41. Riyad Al-Ashqar, Arming the Gulf States and the Arabian Peninsula, Arabian Gulf Studies, Kuwait University Journal, No. 4, November 1975.
42. Robert GuillénGutierre, previous source, p. 107.
43. Hani Raslan, Gulf Action in Confronting the International Political Crisis, Yarmouk Press, Beirut 1991, p. 103.
44. Dhafer Muhammad Al-Ajaimi, previous source, p. 546.
45. Timothy Creasy (General Timothy Creasy): He was born in 1923 and received his education at Cliffon College. He joined the army and became an officer. He was commissioned in the Indian Army in the 10th Baloch Regiment. He served with them in South Asia, Italy and Greece, and in 1955 he worked as an officer in the 39th Regiment. In 1956, he worked as a trainer at the Staff College, and in 1972, he was appointed Major General and loaned to the Sultanate of Oman, where he served as Commander of the Sultan’s Armed Forces;
46. LouayBakr Al-Tayyar, Arab Gulf Security, Center for Arab-European Studies, Dar Bilal. Beirut 1999, p. 89.
47. Pepper Pearls, The Twenty-First Century Will Not Be American, Translated by: MadaniQasri, Arab Foundation for Studies and Publishing, Beirut 2003, 1st edition, p. 3.
48. Jamal ZakariaQasim, Security Problems in the Arabian Gulf Since the British Withdrawal to the Second Gulf War, Lecturer Series, Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, Abu Dhabi 1997, p. 10.
49. Robert Gran Landen, Oman from the Nineteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, Arab Encyclopedia House, translated by the Foundation Center, Beirut, Lebanon 2012, p. 537.
50. Same source, p. 538.
51. RaafatGanji Al-Sheikh, American Relations in the Twentieth Century, The Arab Historian, Historical Quarterly Magazine, General Secretariat of the Union of Historians. Baghdad 1995. Issue 52.
52. Ibrahim Muhammad Yashmi, Kingdom of Hormuz, Al-Ayyam Foundation for Press, Printing and Publishing, Bahrain 1994, p. 163.
53. Same source, p. 167.
54. Saeed Sultan Al-Hashemi, Oman, Man and Authority, Center for Arab Unity Studies, Dar Al-Maaref Publishing, Amman 2001, p. 187.
55. Nayef Ali Obaid, The Cooperation Council for the Arab Gulf States from Cooperation to Integration, Center for Arab Unity Studies, Beirut 2006, p. 211..
56. Same source, p. 213.
57. Jamal Sanad Al-Suwaidi, Iran, the Gulf, and the Search for Stability, Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, Abu Dhabi 1996, p. 186.
58. Nayef Ali Obaid, previous source, p. 223.
59. Ibrahim Ahmed Ibrahim, The Arms Race in the Middle East, International Politics, Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies Journal, No. 76, 1984.
Same source.
60. Peninsula Shield Force: The Gulf Cooperation Council, at its third session in Manama in November 1982, approved the formation of a force composed of the armies of the member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council. The force aims to protect the security and stability of the Gulf Cooperation Council countries and deter any military aggression launched against the force. The problem is naming the “Peninsula Shield Forces,” which is the name that continued to be given to the force until 2005, when the name was changed to the Joint Peninsula Shield Forces during the Supreme Council of the Gulf Cooperation Council at its twenty-sixth session in Abu Dhabi in December 2005: Salah Al-Akkad, Political Currents in The Arabian Gulf, Al-Amin Publishing House, Cairo 1970, p. 171
61. Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Hamad Al-Harithi, Oman Encyclopedia of Secret Documents, Volume 6, Center for Arab Unity Studies, Beirut 1966, p. 231.
62. Fakhri Khalil Al-Najjar, History of Oman’s Civilization, Dar Safaa for Publishing and Distribution, Amman 2010, p. 211.
63. Abdullah Mishari Al-Nafisi, Omani military spending and security interactions, Journal of Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies. Issue 140, Kuwait 2002.
64. RaafatGhunaimi Al-Sheikh, Omani-American relations in the twentieth century, General Secretariat of the Union of Arab Historians, Arab Historian Magazine, No. 52, Baghdad 1995.
65. LouayBakr Al-Tayyar, Security of the Arabian Gulf, Center for Arab-European Studies, Beirut 1999, p. 49; www.1upinfo.com.
66. Adnan Hayajah, Arab Gulf Security in Light of Regional Challenges, Bahrain Center for Strategic, International and Energy Studies, Bahrain 2015, p. 182; LuayBakr Al-Tayyar, previous source, p. 321; www.1upinfo.com.
67. Adnan Hayaga, previous source, p. 184; LuayBakr Al-Tayyar, previous source, p. 321; www.1upinfo.com.
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Published
2023-12-31
How to Cite
Daleel, F. A. . (2023). The Omani Military Establishment and Military Spending (1970-1991). Central Asian Journal of Social Sciences and History, 4(12), 213–232. https://doi.org/10.17605/cajssh.v4i12.1014
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